The upstream git project provides the ability to calculate a so-called
patch ID. Quoting from git-patch-id(1):

    A "patch ID" is nothing but a sum of SHA-1 of the file diffs
    associated with a patch, with whitespace and line numbers ignored."

Patch IDs can be used to identify two patches which are probably the
same thing, e.g. when a patch has been cherry-picked to another branch.

This commit implements a new function `git_diff_patchid`, which gets a
patch and derives an OID from the diff. Note the different terminology
here: a patch in libgit2 are the differences in a single file and a diff
can contain multiple patches for different files. The implementation
matches the upstream implementation and should derive the same OID for
the same diff. In fact, some code has been directly derived from the
upstream implementation.

The upstream implementation has two different modes to calculate patch
IDs, which is the stable and unstable mode. The old way of calculating
the patch IDs was unstable in a sense that a different ordering the
diffs was leading to different results. This oversight was fixed in git
1.9, but as git tries hard to never break existing workflows, the old
and unstable way is still default. The newer and stable way does not
care for ordering of the diff hunks, and in fact it is the mode that
should probably be used today. So right now, we only implement the
stable way of generating the patch ID.

merge: fix potential free of uninitialized memory

The function `merge_diff_mark_similarity_exact` may error our early and,
when it does so, free the `ours_deletes_by_oid` and
`theirs_deletes_by_oid` variables. While the first one can never be
uninitialized due to the first call actually assigning to it, the second
variable can be freed without being initialized.

Fix the issue by initializing both variables to `NULL`.

merge: perform exact rename detection in linear time

travis: upgrade container to Ubuntu 14.04

Fix template dir empty string

Ubuntu 12.04 (Precise Pangolin) reaches end of life on April 28th, 2017.
As such, we should update our build infrastructure to use the next
available LTS release, which is Ubuntu 14.04 LTS (Trusty Tahr). Note
that Trusty is still considered beta quality on Travis. But considering
we are able to correctly build and test libgit2, this seems to be a
non-issue for us.

Switch over our default distribution to Trusty. As Precise still has
extended support for paying customers, add an additional job which
compiles libgit2 on the old release.

Some tests of ours require to be running against an SSH server.
Currently, we simply run against the SSH server provided and started by
Travis itself. As our Linux tests run in a sudo-less environment, we
have no control over its configuration and startup/shutdown procedure.
While this has been no problem until now, it will become a problem as
soon as we migrate over to newer Precise images, as the SSH server does
not have any host keys set up. Luckily, we can simply set up our own
unpriviledged SSH server. This has the benefit of us being able to
modify its configuration even in a sudo-less environment.

This commit sets up the unpriviledged SSH server on port 2222.

All our tests running against a local SSH server usually read the
server's URL from environment variables. But online::clone::ssh_cert
test fails to do so and instead always connects to
"ssh://localhost/foo". This assumption breaks whenever the SSH server is
not running on the standard port, e.g. when it is running as a user.

Fix the issue by using the URL provided by the environment.

adding GIT_FILTER_VERSION to GIT_FILTER_INIT as part of convention

travis: replace use of deprecated homebrew/dupes tap

Test improvements

Introduce a new test suite "odb::backend::simple", which utilizes the
fake backend to exercise the ODB abstraction layer. While such tests
already exist for the case where multiple backends are put together, no
direct testing for functionality with a single backend exist yet.

The fake backend currently implements all reading functions except for
the `exists_prefix` one. Implement it to enable further testing of the
ODB layer.

The `search_object` function takes the OID length as one of its
parameters, where its maximum length is `GIT_OID_HEXSZ`. The `exists`
function of the fake backend used `GIT_OID_RAWSZ` though, leading to
only the first half of the OID being used when finding the correct
object.

In order to be able to test the ODB prefix functions, we need to be able
to detect ambiguous prefixes in case multiple objects with the same
prefix exist in the fake ODB. Extend `search_object` to detect ambiguous
queries and have callers return its error code instead of always
returning `GIT_ENOTFOUND`.

Initialization of the `git_proxy_options` structure is never tested
anywhere. Include it in our usual initialization test in
"core::structinit::compare".

A newly added test uses the `git_repository_new` function without the
corresponding header file being included. While this works due to the
compiler deducing the correct function signature, we should obviously
just include the function's declaration file.

While our debug builds on MSVC platforms already tune the code optimizer
to aid debugging code, all the other platforms still use the default
optimization level. This makes it hard for developers on these platforms
to actually debug code while maintaining his sanity due to optimizations
like inlined code, elided variables etc.

To help this common use case, we can simply follow the MSVC example and
turn off code optimization with "-O0" for debug builds. While it would
be preferable to instead use "-Og" supported by more modern compilers,
we cannot guarantee that this level is available on all supported
platforms.

In our code base, we have some occasions where we use the "_DEBUG"
preprocessor macro to enable additional code which should not be part of
release builds. While we define this flag on MSVC platforms, it is
guarded by the conditional `WIN32 AND NOT CYGWIN` on other platforms
since 19be3f9e (Improve MSVC compiler, linker flags, 2013-02-13). While
this condition can be fulfilled by the MSVC platform, it is never
encountered due to being part of the `ELSE` part of `IF (MSVC)`.

The intention of the conditional was most likely to avoid the
preprocessor macro on Cygwin platforms, but to include it on everthing
else. As such, the correct condition here would be `IF (NOT CYGWIN)`
instead. But digging a bit further, the condition is only ever used in
two places:

1. To skip the test in "core::structinit", which should also work on
   Cygwin.
2. In "src/win32/git2.rc", where it is used to set additional file
   flags. As this file is included in MSVC builds only, it cannot cause
   any harm to set "_DEBUG" on Cygwin here.

As such, we can simply drop the conditional and always set "-D_DEBUG" on
all platforms.

In commit 9f75a9ce (Turning on runtime checks when building debug under
MSVC., 2012-03-30), we introduced a comment "Precompiled headers", which
actually refers to no related commands. Seeing that the comment never
had anything to refer to, we can simply remove it here.

The formulae provided by the homebrew/dupes tap are deprecated since at
least April 4, 2017, with formulae having been migrated to
homebrew/core.

Replace the deprecated reference to "homebrew/dupes/zlib" with only
"zlib".

Read prefix tests

Allow creation of a configuration object in an in-memory repository

travis: install openssl explicitly

Given a wholly in-memory repository, ensure that we can create an
anonymous remote and perform actions on it.

When in an in-memory repository - without a configuration file - do not
fail to create a configuration object.

Disambiguate error values: return `GIT_ENOTFOUND` when the item cannot
exist in the repository (perhaps because the repository is inmemory or
otherwise not backed by a filesystem), return `-1` when there is a hard
failure.

Previous to pulling out and extending the fake backend, it was quite
cumbersome to write tests for very specific scenarios regarding
backends. But as we have made it more generic, it has become much easier
to do so. As such, this commit adds multiple tests for scenarios with
multiple backends for the ODB.

The changes also include a test for a very targeted scenario. When one
backend found a matching object via `read_prefix`, but the last backend
returns `GIT_ENOTFOUND` and when object hash verification is turned off,
we fail to reset the error code to `GIT_OK`. This causes us to segfault
later on, when doing a double-free on the returned object.

Right now, the fake backend is quite restrained in the way how it
works: we pass it an OID which it is to return later as well as an error
code we want it to return. While this is sufficient for existing tests,
we can make the fake backend a little bit more generic in order to allow
us testing for additional scenarios.

To do so, we change the backend to not accept an error code and OID
which it is to return for queries, but instead a simple array of OIDs
with their respective blob contents. On each query, the fake backend
simply iterates through this array and returns the first matching
object.

In order to make the fake backend more useful, we want to enable it
holding multiple object references. To do so, we need to decouple it
from the single fake OID it currently holds, which we simply move up
into the calling tests.

The fake backend used by the test suite `odb::backend::nonrefreshing` is
useful to have some low-level tests for the ODB layer. As such, we move
the implementation into its own `backend_helpers` module.

smart_protocol: fix parsing of server ACK responses